Groundnut Shells and Toddy Palm Shells Recycling Through Vermicomposting Technology and its Efficacy on Growth and Yield Attributes of Cluster Bean (Cyamopsis Tetragonoloba L.) Taub

Introduction

India generates approximately 350 million tonnes of agricultural waste per year. Agricultural wastes are leaf litters, crop residues, livestock, animal waste etc, those wastes are leftover product after harvesting which are landfilling or buried in the open field causing environmental pollutions. Hence, recycling is one of the best ways to reduce and use the leftover¹. The reduction and recycling of agricultural waste in suitable and systematic ways is composting, energy production, animal fodder, mushroom production etc.,². In the current study, the groundnut shells and toddy palm shells recycled by composting technology. Composting is an environment friendly method converts waste into organic fertilizer with the help of animal manure (cow dung) through biological processes³ which improving fertility of soil and crop production⁴. Animal manure is rich source of organic matter and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen)^5. Vermicomposting is an eco-friendly sustainable technology that involves stabilization of organic matter by dual action of microorganisms and earthworms⁶ which is a peat like material used as soil conditioner, contains macro and micronutrients available in the form that are easily absorbed by plants ^7,8. Vermicompost retains water holding capacity, high porosity and humidity produced by the activity of earthworms in the composting unit which improves the plant growth, yield and soil physical and chemical parameters⁹ . Vermicomposting of groundnut shells and toddy palm shells with consortium of microorganisms, Trichoderma asperelloides and earthworm assistance. Groundnut shells are waste material after separation of groundnut seeds and toddy palm shells are discarded material after removal of sweet jelly sockets. Both wastes are degrading very slow in the natural environmental conditions due to high level of moisture content. However, both waste material contains substantial amount of plant nutrients such as NPK¹.

The pit composting of groundnut shells and toddy palm shells were done at Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India which is coolest method for bio-composting and low-priced. The cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub variety MDU 1 was used as an experimental crop under pot culture studies which is an economical important and edible crop cultivated throughout India, particularly north parts¹⁰. Cluster bean has been considerably valued for its galactomannan content gained from the endosperm of seeds¹¹. In this study, we aim to investigate the influence of six different organic fertilizer made from two different substrates on growth and yield of cluster bean respectively.

Materials and methods

Experimental setup

Groundnut shells was collected from groundnut field and toddy palm shells was collected from roadside vendor shops around Coimbatore located at 11.0168ºN latitude and 76.9558ºE longitude. Microorganisms, Trichoderma asperelloides and cluster bean seeds were collected from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Approximately, 100ml of consortium of microorganisms such as Streptomyces lavendulae (MTCC-6821), Paecilomyces variotti (MTCC-6581), Bacillus licheniformis (MTCC-10498), and Pleurotus florida (MTCC-9194) were mixed with 10 L of water contains one kilogram of cow dung respectively. Six pits were dug in equal size measured at 50×45×60cm (length, width, depth) and named as T₁-T₆. 5kg of samples (groundnut shells and toddy palm shells) transferred into respective pits along with microorganisms and cow dung in the following manner.

T₁ – Groundnut shells + Trichoderma asperelloides + Eisenia fetida

T₂ – Groundnut shell + microbial consortium

T₃ – Groundnut shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida

T₄ – Toddy palm shells + Trichoderma asperelloides + Eisenia fetida

T₅ – Toddy palm shell + microbial consortium

T₆ – Toddy palm shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida

After 30 days of pre-digestion process approximately 50 g of tiger worm Eisenia fetida was inoculated into the respective composts (T₁, T₃, T₄ and T₆) for two months and retaining moisture level around 50 percent respectively. After 90 days of complete composting process the compost was matured turn dark brown to black colour, which is used for pot culture studies. 100g of respective compost mixed in a cement pot contains 20kg of red clay loam soil prepared having following combination and arranged in randomized block design with three replications.

C – 20kg soil

T₁ – 20kg soil + 100g (Groundnut shells + Trichoderma asperelloides + Eisenia fetida)

T₂ – 20kg soil + 100g (Groundnut shell + microbial consortium)

T₃ – 20kg soil + 100g (Groundnut shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida)

T₄ – 20kg soil + 100g (Toddy palm shells + Trichoderma asperelloides + Eisenia fetida)

T₅ – 20kg soil + 100g (Toddy palm shell + microbial consortium)

T₆ – 20kg soil + 100g (Toddy palm shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida)

Three seeds were sowed in each pot at 3cm depth and irrigated necessary of water two days once.

Growth and yield characters

After germination three healthy plants were taken for analysis. On 25, 50 and 75 DAS root length, shoot length, number of leaves, flowers, nodules, fresh weight and dry weight of plant were analyzed. On 90 DAS yield parameters like number of pods, length of pod, number of seeds/pod, yield/plant, fresh and dry weight of pod were analyzed. Root length was measured from ground level to tip of the root and shoot length was measured from ground level to the shoot apex. Number of leaves, flowers, nodules, pods, seeds/pod were count manually and fresh & dry weight of plant and pods were weighted in grams by digital balance.

Statistical analysis

The data obtained from 25, 50, 75 and 90 DAS were subjected to statistically analyzed by one way and two-way anova and based on the results inference were drawn.

Results and discussions

Root length (cm)

The data presented in table 1 shows that the root length and shoot length of cluster bean on 25, 50 and 75 DAS respectively. The maximum root length was observed in T₆ (9.1 cm, 20.8 cm and 21.9 cm) followed by T₃ (7.2 cm, 20.2 cm and 21.4 cm) compared to the C (3.2 cm, 8.9 cm and 10.5 cm) on 25, 50 and 75 days after sowing. This is may be due to the combined action of consortium of microorganisms and earthworms promotes maximum plant growth such as root and shoot length. The vermicompost promotes availability of macro & micronutrients and phytohormones that stimulates the plant growth¹². In addition, the presence of PGPM in the consortium of microorganism (B. licheniformis and P. variotii) helps growth of root and shoot. These microbes are able to produce auxin which plays a vital role in elongation of root consequence plant growth¹³. Several reports have revealed that the plant inoculated with two or more organisms (microbial consortium) significantly improved the growth of plant than single source^14,15. Likewise, the plant height significantly improved by the plant inoculated with the dual application of recommended dose of N, P, K and microbial consortium¹⁶ and plant growth promoting rhizobacterial strains treated Amaranthus crop enhanced the maximum root and shoot length compared to the control¹⁷.

Table 1: Growth parameters of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 25, 50 and 75 DAS

Treatments	Root length (cm)			Shoot length (cm)
	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS
C	3.2	8.9	10.5	17.2	42.4	60.2
T1	5.3	11.3	12.5	19.3	48.9	69.9
T2	6.3	13.4	13.9	20.3	54.6	66.4
T3	7.2	20.2	21.4	22.4	66.4	83.0
T4	5.9	14.9	15.6	18.2	59.4	68.3
T5	6.9	10.3	13.2	20.4	63.6	80.2
T6	9.1	20.8	21.9	24.6	78.2	84.8
SEd	0.16441			0.20902
Cd(p<0.05)	0.33186			0.42191
Cd(p<0.01)	0.44361			0.56398

Shoot length (cm)

The maximum shoot length was observed in toddy palm shell composted with consortium of microorganisms and earthworm (24.6 cm, 78.2 cm and 84.8 cm) compared to the other treatments as shown in table 1. This is may be due to the obtainability of vital nutrients from consortium of microorganisms enhanced the plant growth. The supplement of macro nutrients (N, P, K) availability in T₆ promotes vigorous production of crop increase the shoot length. Particularly, P plays an important role in development of plant and multiplication of cells resulting enhanced the length of shoot¹⁸. The joint action of vermicompost and microbial consortium promotes maximum length of shoot. Similarly, the joint action of 75% vermicompost and 100% soil increased the growth parameters of okra. In the present study, the PGPM such as P. variotii and B. licheniformis in the consortium of microorganisms ability to produce gibberellins, responsible for the elongation of shoot¹⁹.

Number of leaves

 On 25, 50 and 75 DAS the higher count of leaves was observed in the combined application of toddy palm shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida (9.0, 43.3 and 46.3) followed by groundnut shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida (8.3, 40.6 and 44.3) as given in table 2. The dual action of two or more microorganisms with vermicompost revealed the vigorous production of plant growth and also the availability of micro and macro nutrients in the vermicompost improved the growth parameters. Similarly, the mutual action of Bacillus sp and Pseudomonas sp. increased the root length, height of plant, number of leaves and yield of zea mays²⁰ and also vermicompost of 60% municipal solid waste enhanced the number of leaves and diameter of leaf in bhendi²¹. The application of 20% rumen blood with 80% coir pith enhanced the number of leaves of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)²².

Table 2: Growth parameters of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 25, 50 and 75 DAS

Treatments	Number of leaves			Number of nodules
	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS
C	3.0	28.0	29.3	5.3	7.3	1.3
T1	3.6	29.6	31.6	6.0	8.0	1.6
T2	5.3	30.3	36.6	6.3	10.3	2.6
T3	8.3	40.6	44.3	8.0	13.6	4.0
T4	5.6	37.0	39.0	7.0	11.6	3.0
T5	6.0	32.3	35.0	7.6	12.6	3.6
T6	9.0	43.3	46.3	8.6	14.0	4.6
SEd	0.27208			0.15908
Cd(p<0.05)	0.54921			0.32111
Cd(p<0.01)	0.73414			0.42923

 Number of nodules

The maximum count of root nodules presents in T₆ (8.6, 14.0 and 4.6) followed by T₃ (8.0, 13.6 and 4.0), T₅ (7.6, 12.6 and 3.6), T₄ (7.0, 11.6 and 3.0) and minimum in C (5.3, 7.3 and 1.3) on 25, 50 and 75 DAS respectively. The count of nodules reach peak on 50 DAS of plant growth which may be due the better nutrients supply enhanced the propagation and development of roots consequence better formation of nodules and fixation of nitrogen²³. The joined action of consortium of microorganisms and earthworms promotes the highest number of nodules in both (toddy palm shell and groundnut shell) composts. Further, the application of 75% recommended dose of fertilizer + rhizobium + pressmud increased the height of plant, number of nodules and a diameter of cluster bean under alley cropping system¹⁵ and the combination of Brevibacillus MP4 + Pseudomonas MP5 + Rhizobium MP7 enhanced the root nodules of Vicia faba plant²⁴.

Number of flowers

Higher number of flowers was observed from T₆ (toddy palm shell + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida) followed by T₃ (groundnut shell + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida) than C (Table 3). This might be due to the essential amount of micro and macronutrients from the consortium of microorganisms enhanced the flowering attributes of cluster bean. The recommended level of P, N, K from inorganic and organic substrate promotes maximum count of flowers²⁵. The presence of PGPR in microbial consortium ability to produce auxin, gibberellins and cytokinin which plays a key role in initiation of flowering²⁶.

Table 3: Growth parameters of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 50 and 75 DAS

Treatments	Number of flowers		Number of pods
	50 DAS	75 DAS	75 DAS
C	8.3	9.0	2.3
T1	11.3	14.0	3.0
T2	13.6	16.3	2.6
T3	15.0	18.6	5.6
T4	12.0	15.0	4.6
T5	14.3	16.0	5.3
T6	15.6	24.6	6.6
SEd	1.35111		0.3324
Cd(p<0.05)	2.76771		0.7130
Cd(p<0.01)	3.73404		0.9895

Number of pods

The maximum number of pods recorded in T₆ (6.6) followed by T₃ (5.6), T₅ (5.3), T₄ (4.6), T₁ (3.0), T₂ (2.6) and minimum in C (2.3) on 75 days after sowing which may be due to the availability of nitrogen leads to increase number of pods in cluster bean. Similarly, accumulation of nitrogen level enhanced the number of pods in mungbean²⁷. In addition, the consortium of microorganisms accelerates the growth of plant and yield. The application of 100% recommended dose of fertilizer + zinc + phosphate solubilizing bacteria significantly registered maximum number of pods in Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)²⁸.

Fresh weight of the plant (g)

On 25 DAS the maximum fresh weight was observed in T₆ (4.881 g) which was gradually increased more than double fold (9.658 g and 17.912 g) on 50 and 75 DAS as shown in table 4 respectively. The plant growth promoting microorganisms present in compost enhanced the soil fertility thereby, increased the height of plant resulting increased the fresh weight. Okra inoculated with 25% urea + 75% jeewamirta enhanced the fresh weight of root and shoot²⁹. In the current study, the application of microbial consortium and earthworms which have growth regulars such as gibberellins and cytokines, helps in producing more biomass of plant³⁰. The isolation of rhizobium enhanced the seedling growth parameters (shoot length, root length, plant height, fresh and dry weight) of green gram³¹ and different concentration of Na₂SO₄ enhanced the length and fresh weight of sesame seedling after 96 and 144 hours³².

Table 4: Fresh and dry weight of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 25, 50 and 75 DAS

Treatments	Fresh weight (g)			Dry weight (g)
	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS	25 DAS	50 DAS	75 DAS
C	3.052	8.081	12.529	0.145	0.475	0.725
T1	3.296	8.984	13.021	0.255	0.845	0.986
T2	3.652	8.672	14.527	0.481	0.924	1.328
T3	4.051	9.241	17.170	0.852	1.570	2.082
T4	4.011	9.024	16.926	0.523	0.862	1.296
T5	3.958	9.052	16.098	0.686	1.224	1.841
T6	4.881	9.658	17.912	0.894	1.829	2.684
SEd	0.19268			0.17792
Cd(p<0.05)	0.38894			0.35914
Cd(p<0.01)	0.51991			0.48007

Dry weight of the plant (g)

The maximum plant dry weight (0.894 g, 1.829 g and 2.684 g) was observed from the treatment of toddy palm shells degraded with consortium of microorganisms and earthworms assistance on 25, 50 and 75 DAS. The absorption of K⁺ ions and H₂O from soil transported all parts of plant by xylem through root hairs promotes plant biomass and growth. The plant contains 70% of water content promotes fresh weight and loss of water improved the dry mass of plant. Likewise, the usage of water in plants directly related to increasing or decreasing dry weight of plant³³.

Yield

The yield attributing characteristics of cluster bean like number of pods, number of seeds/pod, length of pod (cm), yield/plant (g), fresh and dry weight of plant (g) are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: yield characters of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 90 DAS

Figure 1: Yield characters of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub on 90 DAS Click here to view Figure

The plant treated with toddy palm shells + microbial consortium + Eisenia fetida (8.0, 16.6 cm, 10.3, 45.384 g, 5.673 g and 1.496 g) registered maximum yield parameters of cluster bean on 90 DAS followed by T₃ (7.3, 16.2 cm, 9.6, 36.646 g, 5.020 g and 1.363 g) compared to the C (3.6, 12.3 cm, 6.3, 8.247 g, 2.291 g and 0.419 g) respectively. This might be due to better translocation of photosynthesis from leaves to pods caused higher yield in cluster bean. The joint application of organic and chemical fertilizer enhanced the yield attributing characters of cucumber³⁴. The organic fertilizers like compost and vermicompost retains growth promoting substances like micro and macronutrients, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and vitamins³⁵. The compost prepared from toddy palm shells have higher amount of essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium promotes maximum yield¹. Particularly, phosphorus is essential for initiation of flowering and fruiting. In the current study, T₆ achieved higher count of flowers promotes maximum number of pods consequence higher yield. Different combination of organic briquettes (20% rumen blood with 80% coir pith promotes maximum length of fruit, weight of fruit and fruit yield per plant in okra was reported by ^22.

Conclusions

Vermicompost with microbial consortium had positive impact on vegetative growth particularly root and shoot development promotes the growth of plant. Based on the observations, the combined application of toddy palm shells and groundnut shells degraded with consortium of microorganisms and earthworm (T₆ and T₃) is recommended for enhancement of growth characters and yield attributes of (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub. The usage of organic fertilizers enhanced the fertility of soil and higher yield simultaneously, reduce the usage of chemical fertilizers and avoids pollutions, retains water holding capacity. Hopefully this information will encourage small scale farmers to do organically and environmentally friendly ways.

Acknowledgement

The authors sincerely thank the Department of Botany, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, for providing necessary facilities to carry out the present study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Funding sources

There are no funding sources.

References

1. Velmurugan K., Annamalai V. First report on toddy palm shell-based vermicompost by Eisenia fetida. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022; 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04597-8
   CrossRef
2. Lim S. F., Matu S. U. Utilization of agro-wastes to produce biofertilizer. Int J Energy Environ Eng. 2015; 6(1):31–35.
   CrossRef
3. Ahmed J. K., Varshney S. Polylactides chemistry, properties and green packaging technology. Int J Food Prop. 2011; 14:37–58.
   CrossRef
4. Amoding A. Supply potential and agronomic value of urban market crop wastes. PhD thesis, Makerere University 2007.
5. Zheng X., Zou D., Wu Q., Wang H., Li S., Liu F., Xiao Z. Review on fate and bioavailability of heavy metals during anaerobic digestion and composting of animal manure. Waste Manage. 2022; 150(1): 75-89.
   CrossRef
6. Wani K. A., Mamta., Rao R. J. Bioconversion of garden waste, kitchen waste and cow dung into value-added products using earthworm Eisenia fetida. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2013; 20:149–154.
   CrossRef
7. Sanchez, D. T., Sanchez, M. I. D., Paulo Jr, J. F., Peconcillo Jr, L. B., Flores, M. C. A., Labrado, O. A., Godinez J. A. T., Panzo R. C., Wong, R. L. 2021. Eudrilus Eugeniae: Detritivores and Ecologically Efficient Bio-Agents for Waste Management Technology. J. Mod. Agric.10(1), 781-795.
8. Biabani A., Carpenter-Boggs L., Gholizadeh A. Reproduction efficiency of Eisenia Fetida and substrate changes during vermicomposting of organic materials. Compost Sci Util. 2018; 26:209–215.
   CrossRef
9. Hussain N., Abbasi S. Efficacy of the vermicomposts of different organic wastes as “Clean” Fertilizers: State-Of-The-Art. 2018; 10(4), 1205.
   CrossRef
10. Khare C. P. Indian medicinal plants-An Illustrated dictionary. First Indian reprints, Springer (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2007; 717-718.
    CrossRef
11. Shobiya S., Thingalmainyan K. S., Kamalkumaran P. R., Thiruvengadam V. Assessment of genetic variability for yield and galactomannan content in M3 generation of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.) cv. MDU 1. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2019; 8(3): 2400-2403.
12. Nogales R., Cifuentes C., Benitez E. Vermicomposting of winery wastes: a laboratory study. J Environ Sci Health. 2015; 40:573-659.
    CrossRef
13. Appanna R., Huat T. L., See L. L. C., Tan L., Vadivelu J., Devi J. Cross-Reactive T-Cell Responses to the Nonstructural Regions of Dengue Viruses among Dengue Fever and Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever Patients in Malaysia. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2007; 14(8): 969–977.
    CrossRef
14. Sharma S., Compant S., Ballhausen M. B., Ruppel S., Franken P. The interaction between Rhizoglomus irregulare and hyphae attached phosphate solubilizing bacteria increases plant biomass of Solanum lycopersicum. Microbiol. Res. 2020; 240, 126556.
    CrossRef
15. Santoyo G., Guzmán-Guzmán P., Parra-Cota F. I., Santos-Villalobos S. D. I., Orozco-Mosqueda M. D. C., Glick B. R. Plant growth stimulation by microbial consortia, Agronomy. 2021; 11, 219.
    CrossRef
16. Thilagar G., Bagyaraj D. J., Rao M. S. Selected microbial consortia developed for chilly reduces application of chemical fertilizers by 50% under field conditions. Hortic. 2016; 198, 27-35.
    CrossRef
17. Devi R., Kaur T., Kour D., Yadav A. N. Microbial consortium of mineral solubilizing and nitrogen fixing bacteria for plant growth promotion of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondrius L.). Agric. Biotechnol. 2022; 43: 102404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102404
    CrossRef
18. Sharma P., Meena R. S., Kumar S., Gurjar D. S., Yadav G. S., Kumar S. Growth, yield and quality of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) as influenced by integrated nutrient management under alley cropping system Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2019; 89 (11): 1876–80.
    CrossRef
19. Stepanova N.,Yun J., Likhacheva A. V., Alonso J. M. Multilevel Interactions between Ethylene and Auxin in Arabidopsis Roots. The Plant Cell. 2007; 19(7): 2169–2185.
    CrossRef
20. Olanrewaju O. S., Babalola O.O. Bacterial consortium for improved maize (Zea mays) production.   Microorganisms. 2019; 7:519.
    CrossRef
21. Srivastava V., Gupta S. K., Singh P., Sharma B., Singh R. P. Biochemical, physiological and yield responses of lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) grown on varying rations of municipal solid waste Int. J. Recycl. Org. Waste Agric. 2018; 7: 241-250.
    CrossRef
22. Sankar K. J. A., Vasudevan V. N., Sunil B., Latha A., Irshad A., Mathew D. K. D., Saifudden S. M. Development of Organic Briquettes from Slaughterhouse Waste as Nutrient Source for Plant Growth. Waste Biomass Valor. 2022; 13: 599–608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-021-01507-w
    CrossRef
23. Meena S., Bahadur I., Maurya, B. R., Kumar A., Meena R. K., Meena S. K., Verma J. P. Potassium-Solubilizing Microorganism in Evergreen Agriculture: An Overview. Potassium Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture 2016; 1–20.
    CrossRef
24. Mowafy A. M., Agha M. S., Haroun S. A., Abbas M. A., Elbalkini M. Insights in nodules-inhabiting plant growth promoting bacteria and their ability to stimulate Vicia faba.  j. basic appl. sci. 2022; 9(1): 51-64.
    CrossRef
25. Singh J., Singh M. K., Kumar M., Kumar V., Singh, K. P., Omid, A. Q. Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth, flowering and yield attributes of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). J. Chem. Stud. 2018; 6(4), 567-572.
26. Zhang Z., Zhao H., Tang J., Li Z., Li Z., Chen D., Lin W. A proteomic study on molecular mechanism of poor grain-filling of rice (Oryza sativa L.) inferior spikelets. PLoS One. 2014; 9(2), 89140.
    CrossRef
27. Paler A. L. L., Alcantara C. G. Effect of Azolla (Azolla pinnata) as a bio-stimulant on nutrient uptake and yield of mungbean (Vigna radiata L.). Org. Agr. 2021; 11, 469–475
    CrossRef
28. , Rajendra K., Singh., Pareek B., Kumar D., Meena S., Dubey S. K. Different levels of fertilizers on growth and yield of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in rainfed area of Uttar Pradesh, India, Int. j. curr. microbiol. appl. sci. 2017; 6 (4): 2029-2036.
    CrossRef
29. Fazeel M. L. M., Sutharsan S., Srikrishnah S. Effect of different levels of nitrogen fertilizer and jeewamirta application on growth and yield of Abelmoschus esculentus L. 9^th South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil. 27^th -28^th November 2019. 310-319. ISBN: 978-955-627-189-8.
30. Beaulah, A. Growth and development of moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) under organic and inorganic systems of culture.” PhD diss. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 2001.
31. Sneka M., Shanmitha A. R., Priyadharshini A. S., Thilakavathi G., Joselin J., Sarenya R., Nachiar T. M., Kaleeswari G., Pushpakanth P., Tamilselvi S.M. Isolation and characterization of rhizobium from green gram (Vigna radiata). Agric. Res. J. 2022; 10(3): 277-289.
    CrossRef
32. Hussain M., Kumar A. germination and seedling growth of sesame cultivars under salinity stresses. Agric. Res. J 20022; 10(3); 366-374.
    CrossRef
33. Eifediyi E. K., Remison S. U. Growth and yield of cucumber (cucumis sativus l.) as influenced by farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizer. Plant Breed. Crop Sci. 2010; 2(7): 216-220.
34. Natarajan K. Panchagavya for plant. In: Proceedings of the national conference, Glory Gomatha, S.V. Veterinary University, Tirupati, India, 2007. 72–75.